Samarkand is one of the oldest inhabited cities in the world and has been a prominent and esteemed destination on the Silk Road for nearly a millennium; the earliest official documents that mention Samarkand date prior to the 7th c. BCE, and the archaeological ruins of Afrasiab confirm that Samarkand was the capital of the Sogdian satrap of the Achaemenid Dynasty of Persia from the 6th c. BCE until Alexander the Great conquered it in 329 BCE. The following year in Samarkand, Alexander the Great slew his respected general and dear friend, Cleitus the Black, while in a drunken argument. For the next six centuries Samarkand rose and fell within various Persian dynasties, the more memorable of which include the Perso-Turkic kingdoms of the Seljuq Turks and the Celestial Turks; both kingdoms exponentially increased trade in Samarkand and established its importance on the Silk Road. Diversity flourished under the Perso-Turkic kingdoms; textual and ritual artifacts suggest that Zoroastrians, Manicheans, Buddhists, Jews, Christians, Muslims and those of shamanistic faiths lived harmoniously and received substantial patronage in Samarkand. However, the rise of the 8th c. CE brought Samarkand under the rule of the Abbasid Caliphate, the third caliphate of the Arab Dynasty in the Islamic Empire that was founded by the descendant of the Prophet Muhammad's youngest uncle; the Abbasids heavily endorsed Islam in Samarkand and gradually reduced patronage of other faiths in the city. Under the Abbasids, the first paper mill in the Islamic world was created in Samarkand in 751 CE; the technology then diffused throughout Central Asia along the Silk Road, and several decades later, the paper mill was an established technology in Europe. Control of Samarkand varied back and forth between Arab caliphates and Perso-Turkic kingdoms for many centuries, and Islam became even more established and inclusive in the city; however, the 15th c. CE is considered to be the pinnacle of Islamic culture in Central Asia, “The Flowering of Samarkand,” when Timur and his Timurid Dynasty transformed Samarkand into one of the most legendary and provocative cities in the Islamic world.
The Zeravshan River, formerly a branch of the Amu Darya River, that flows just on the outskirts of Samarkand. "Zeravshan" means 'strewer of gold' in Persian.
An elaborately decorated portal of Shah-i-Zinda, the Timurid necropolis and mausoleum. The symmetry and geometrical patterns are Persian-inspired, and the detailed ornamentation and calligraphy is of Ilkhanid influence.
Timur came to power during a civil war in what was then known as the Turkic kingdom of Turkestan, a kingdom that encompassed almost the entirety of Central Asia. At the height of the civil war in 1332 CE, Turkestan was ruled by Kazan Khan, a descendant of Genghis Khan, who was described as “a cruel and tyrannical villain” who was feared and hated by his people. After over a decade of oppression and destitution, the people of Turkestan revolted under the leadership of Amir Kazghan, who then slew Kazan Khan in 1346 and replaced him as the ruler of Turkestan. During the following decade, Amir Kazghan awarded his relatives, who were other descendents of Genghis Khan, with important positions throughout Turkestan. In a social and political climate that was frightened of Mongol-Turkic leadership, Amir Kazghan was assassinated in 1357 and replaced by his son, Abdullah Khan, who then made Samarkand the capital of Turkestan. Instability and corruption ensued; Abdullah Khan was exiled for putting to death the husband of his mistress less than a year after the assassination of Amir Kazghan, and “perceiving the state of disruption into which the kingdom of Turkestan had lapsed”, Timur decided to make his political move. The effects of the civil war had taken their toll on the people of Turkestan, and they believed out of exhaustion rather than enthusiasm that Timur, who was previously an obscure general with no direct affiliation to Kazan, Amir, or Abdullah, was their savior. It took several years for Timur to either assassinate or coerce Kazghan’s relatives into recognizing the legitimacy of his leadership, and in 1370 CE he became the official ruler of Turkestan. Much to the appreciation of the people, Timur was a devout Muslim and active supporter of the arts and sciences, and he began to plan various architectural projects in Samarkand almost immediately. Financing for his endeavors was provided by the trade of Samarkand’s abundant and diverse agricultural resources that included melons, nuts, grains, and peaches that were popular in Europe and China.
A statue of Timur in Tashkent, Uzbekistan. He lived from 1336 CE to 1405 CE and made Samarkand his capital in 1370 CE.
Timur built many public gardens and fountains that were surrounded by flowering and fruit bearing trees and shrubs, flanked by stone walls with elaborate patterns and floors outfitted with silks and carpets. None of these structures remain today, other than their ruined foundations and official documents verifying their existence. Timur’s mosques, colleges, and mausoleums, however, have survived, intact and resplendent, for over five centuries. Timurid architecture is considered to represent the epitome of Islamic architectural style in Central Asia, and is often referred to as the Imperial style; the Imperial style is influenced by Persian architecture as well as its division, the Ilkhanid period. Much like the use of geometry in the Gothic style in Europe, Persian architecture utilizes axial symmetry, which implements repeated proportional geometric configurations that rotate and develop around a specific point in the vaulting. Domes are characteristic of Persian architecture and are used throughout most of the Islamic world, the exterior and interiors of which are usually decorated with varying shades of blue, white, and gold and employ axial symmetry in their design. An important element in the Ilkhanid period is the use of arabesques for decoration; an elaborate application of repeating geometric forms that typically features fluid and complex shapes, plants, and animals. The point of the arabesque is to express comprehensive and complex spirituality without using iconography or featuring humans, which is usually forbidden in Islamic art. The Ilkhanid period is known for its refined and celebrated calligraphy and inscription, as well as the use of gold illumination in arabesques. It’s thought that the intense use of gold illumination in Timurid architecture was inspired by the Ilkhanid appreciation for the Chinese style of gold illumination in the previous century. The most distinguishable feature in Timurid architecture is the extensive and unrestricted use of blue mosaic tiles on the exterior domes, as well as on the Gothic vaulting on the interiors of the domes. These major characteristics of Timurid architecture were renowned in Central Asia, which they inspired the Mughal period of architecture, a famous example of which is the Taj Mahal in Agra, built by the great-grandson of Timur. The primary examples of Timurid architecture are the Bibi Khanym Mosque, the Shah-i-Zinda, the Gur-e-Amir and the Registan.
The interior of the dome, and ceiling of Gur-e-Amir; note that the vaulting bears a resemblance to the vaulting of Gothic cathedrals in Europe.
An alternative view of the interior of the dome and ceiling of Gur-e-Amir.
The Bibi Khanym Mosque was named after Timur’s wife, who was the daughter of Kazan Khan. After his Indian campaign ended in 1399, Timur decided to commence the construction of an enormous mosque in Samarkand, with hurried and disorganized work, the mosque was completed in 1404. To put into perspective the size of the mosque, its outer walls 167 meters in length and 109 meters in width; this may seem small today, but was considered very large then, when outer walls were typically half the size. The beautifully fluted dome of the main body of the mosque reaches 40 meters, and the adjacent portal is just five meters lower. There is a Qur’an placed in the center of the courtyard, and then entrance to the mosque is through imposing double doors of bronze that resemble Romanesque doors in Europe, that bear the inscription “…the sound of these huge doors, made from the alloys of seven metals, calls the prayers of seven climates into the house of Islam.” It seems that Timurid architecture often incorporates European inspiration into its Persian origins, and it is no wonder that the Bibi Khanym Mosque was thought to have “…rivaled all Islamic buildings, even those among religious buildings in Christendom” at the time. Stories of its construction reached Europe, and it was accurately believed that artists and architects from throughout Central Asia were involved in the project, and that the stones used for the elaborate mosaics were carried on the backs of a hundred elephants, from India to Samarkand. As the mosque fell into disuse and disrepair, the tile work crumbled and the walls began to decay; the Ilkhanid period arabesques of the interior dome and exterior portal at one time featured floral and calligraphic ornamentation with gold inscription, and there were many scenes of the Garden of Eden. The demise of the Bibi Khanym Mosque was hastened by an earthquake in 1897 and completed by the Russian Occupation, but has been reconstructed and renovated to its original splendor.
The glistening azure dome of Bibi Khanym Mosque, made entirely of precious stones. Notice that the inscriptions are mosaic tile work patterns as well.
Gur-e-Amir means ‘tomb of the king’ in Persian, and is the mausoleum of Timur and several of his family members. It occupies an important place in the history of Islamic architecture because it’s the ultimate and most recognized model for later Mughal architecture, especially mausoleums, including Emperor Humayan’s Tomb in Delhi and the Taj Mahal in Agra, built by Timur’s descendents, the ruling Mughal Dynasty in North India. The Gur-e-Amir is also an example of a new interpretation of the Ilkhanid period, with its huge portal, high blue domes and refined calligraphy; it was often later compared to the mausoleums and cathedrals of European capitals, like Prague, and was thus considered to be the epitome of the Imperial style in Central Asia. The entrance to the mausoleum is through an elaborately decorated portal that features sculpted bricks and mosaic tile work that are faithful in design to the Persian style, without doubt because the project was lead by renowned architect Muhammad-bin-Mahmud-Isfahani, from Persia. The Gur-e-Amir’s trademark is its simple azure dome, the interior of which is expressively and complexly ribbed, vaulted, and fluted and crafted exclusively of precious stones; beneath are the tombs of Timur, his sons, and grandsons. Also honored with a place in Timur’s mausoleum is his political and spiritual advisor, Mir-Sayyid-Baraka. The story behind the construction of the Gur-e-Amir adds a perception of solemnity to its beauty; the construction began in 1403 upon the death of Timur’s beloved grandson. It was never Timur’s intention to be placed in the Gur-e-Amir, for he had built for himself a smaller mausoleum in Shahr-i-Sabz. However, upon his death in 1405 during his campaign to China, the roads and passes to Shahr-i-Sabz were snowed in, and to prevent the body from putrification, Timur was placed in a tomb beside his grandson in the Gur-e-Amir. Subsequently, the mausoleum became the family tomb. It’s important to note that the tomb is not only an important work of Central Asian Islamic architecture for its design, but because it represents the life and death of Timur and the Timurid Dynasty, a man and his descendents who actively supported and participated in Islamic culture.
A view of the Gur-e-Amir and its exaggerated, and complexly ornamented front portal. The interior of the domes are pictured further above.
Shah-i-Zinda means 'the living king' in Persian and is the most well known necropolis in Central Asia. The necropolis includes a mausoleum, as well as other ritual buildings built during the 14th century, although parts of the foundational building date back to the 9th century. The tombs contain Timur’s niece, sister, other distant relatives, as well as renowned Islamic astronomer and scientist, Kazi-Zade-Rumi. The meaning behind the name has a rather interesting history that seems to encompass the extraordinary and romantic character associated with Samarkand. It’s believed that Kusam-ibn-Abbas, the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad himself, came to Samarkand to preach Islam with the Arab invasion in the 7th century. Apparently, he was not well received in Samarkand, and much to the dismay of his fellow Arabs, was beheaded for his Islamic preaching. Like St. Denis, Kusam-ibn-Abbas grabbed his head from where it had fallen, preaching until he came to rest permanently in a nearby well. The area surrounding the well was then deemed sacred, and the legend is still relayed today to those who visit Shah-i-Zinda. Timur was aware of this legend and also believed that the area was sacred, and thus decided to construct the Shah-i-Zinda incorporating the existing foundational building. Timur died, however, before its completion, and the Shah-i-Zinda was completed by the patronage of Timur’s children and grandchildren. Awhile before his death, Timur included an inscription on one of the portals, from the Qur’an, that reads “…never consider dead those who were killed on the way to Allah. No, they live!”
A closeup of a beautiful Ilkhanid rosette, featuring white, blue and gold inlay tile work. There are many rosettes like this on the exterior and in the interior of the necropolis.
The domes of the Shah-i-Zinda are similar in hue to that of the Bibi Khanym Mosque, and they are both made of the same sort of precious stones.
“The Registan is the noblest public square in the world…” and was considered to be the heart of Samarkand. Registan means ‘sandy place’ in Persian, and comprises a sand and stone public square surrounded by three madrasahs, also known in English as Islamic clerical academies. The madrasahs are called ‘Ulugh Beg,’ the ‘Sher-Dor’ which means ‘having tigers,’ and the ‘Tillya-Kori.’ The decoration of the Registan, like all Timurid architecture, emphasizes varying shades of blue, and it is said that “…not an inch of any exterior had escaped the genius responsible for illuminating its walls.” The tile work is of varying shades of blue, as well as white and gold, and forms elaborate designs of Ilkhanid inspired calligraphy, inscription, and geometric shapes and rosettes; the tile work covers almost every inch of each madrasah, both interior and exterior. Each madrasah was constructed at a different time, and only the Ulugh Beg madrasah was patronized by a Timurid relative, as the other two madrasahs were created in the 17th century as imitations of the Timurid style. Despite chronological disparity, the three madrasah are uniform and complimentary and each has large, imposing portals with vaulted arches of Gothic inspiration. An interesting feature is the Persian style minarets that complement the delicacy and intricacy of the Qur’an inscriptions and Ilkhanid arabesques that decorate the interior of the Registan. There is a grand courtyard that is home to a mosque, surrounded by lecture rooms, study halls, dormitories and galleries. At the time, it was considered one of the best clerical universities in the Islamic world, and produced many prominent Islamic figures in the arts and sciences, as well as religion, one of whom includes Abdurrahman Djami, a poet and philosopher who studied under Ulugh Beg, Timur’s grandson. Ulugh Beg was the most prominent lecturer at the clerical academy, and there is a curious inscription that Ulugh Beg placed over the portal leading into the mosque, perhaps a reflection of his desire to unite science and religion, that translates as “…This portal is built to resemble Paradise... in it are teachers of the truths of the sciences useful to the religion, under the direction of the greatest of sultans.” During Ulugh Beg’s rule, the madrasahs were the centre of secular science, and unfortunately, his support of secular science awarded his beheading in 1449.
The front portal and facade of the Sher-Dor madrasah of the Registan. "Sher-Dor" means 'having tigers' in Persian; notice the tigers on each side of the portal. They are made of mosaic inlay tile work.
A statue of Ulugh Beg in Panjikent, Uzbekistan. He lived from 1393 CE to 1449 CE, and was beheaded for his support of secular science.
After the death of Ulugh Beg, the beautiful and monumental construction of the Timurid Dynasty slowly declined in Samarkand; Timur’s descendents ventured southward into Northern India, and continued the Timurid legacy thereafter. Not only did all architectural endeavors cease, but the culture that flourished in Samarkand stagnated as well. The people that were drawn to Samarkand as a center of the arts and sciences, and for education and peace, gradually began to travel elsewhere. The economy after Ulugh Beg was weakening, and in 1499 CE, the Uzbeks invaded and pillaged Samarkand and forced many more of its inhabitants to flee to neighboring kingdoms. To further Samarkand’s demise, Turkestan remained observant of Sunni Islam while the inhabitants of neighboring Iran converted to Shi’a Islam, and unfortunately, this didn’t bode well for their political and economical relationship and much of the trade between the two countries ceased, causing Samarkand’s economy to deteriorate even further. Not only did this religious disparity cause political and economic hardships in Samarkand, but there was not very much cultural exchange between Turkestan and the surrounding kingdoms and countries; Samarkand became culturally isolated. Moreover, the advent of cargo ships instead of cargo caravans made trade between China and Europe faster and simpler, and completely cut Samarkand out of the trading picture. A second wave of Uzbek pillaging in 1554 CE obliterated Samarkand, and many of the monuments discussed above were very badly damaged and remained in that condition all throughout the Russian Occupation during the late 19th and early 20th centuries until the Russians decided to restore them shortly after. There is a quote that reflects and embodies the spirit and intrigue of Samarkand, and is a perfect way to close this project and leave a resonating image of Samarkand in our minds, and it reads “…there are a few cities which touch a chord in those who see them for the first time. The glamour of their fallen majesty is heightened rather than destroyed, for it brings before us, as if by magic, a panorama often seen in spirit, and its prosaic surroundings serve as a foil to the halo of romance which still lingers over the seat of a vanquished empire.”
The epitome of Timurid architecture, the portal of the Bibi Khanym Mosque features arabesques, blue and white mosaic patterns, inscriptions and gold calligraphy, and uses inspiration from both Persian and Ilkhanid styles.
Works Cited:
Chuvin, Pierre & deGeorge, Gerard. Samarkand, Bukhara, Khiva. Paris: Flammarion, 2001.
Knobloch, Edgar. Monuments of Central Asia: A Guide to the Archaeology, Art & Architecture of Turkestan. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2001.
Moorhouse, Geoffrey. Apples in the Snow: A Journey to Samarkand. London: Hodder & Stoughten, 1990.
Skrine, Henry & Ross, Edward. The Heart of Asia: A History of Russian Turkestan & the Central Asian Khanates from the Earliest Times. London: Methuen, 1899.
